references.bib

@article{allaire2018national,
  title = {National Trends in Drinking Water Quality Violations},
  author = {Allaire, Maura and Wu, Haowei and Lall, Upmanu},
  year = {2018},
  month = feb,
  journal = {Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences},
  volume = {115},
  number = {9},
  pages = {2078--2083},
  publisher = {Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences},
  doi = {10.1073/pnas.1719805115},
  urldate = {2024-03-25},
  abstract = {Ensuring safe water supply for communities across the United States is a growing challenge in the face of aging infrastructure, impaired source water, and strained community finances. In the aftermath of the Flint lead crisis, there is an urgent need to assess the current state of US drinking water. However, no nationwide assessment has yet been conducted on trends in drinking water quality violations across several decades. Efforts to reduce violations are of national concern given that, in 2015, nearly 21 million people relied on community water systems that violated health-based quality standards. In this paper, we evaluate spatial and temporal patterns in health-related violations of the Safe Drinking Water Act using a panel dataset of 17,900 community water systems over the period 1982--2015. We also identify vulnerability factors of communities and water systems through probit regression. Increasing time trends and violation hot spots are detected in several states, particularly in the Southwest region. Repeat violations are prevalent in locations of violation hot spots, indicating that water systems in these regions struggle with recurring issues. In terms of vulnerability factors, we find that violation incidence in rural areas is substantially higher than in urbanized areas. Meanwhile, private ownership and purchased water source are associated with compliance. These findings indicate the types of underperforming systems that might benefit from assistance in achieving consistent compliance. We discuss why certain violations might be clustered in some regions and strategies for improving national drinking water quality.},
  file = {files/10137/Allaire et al. - 2018 - National trends in drinking water quality violatio.pdf}
}

@article{burt2018intermittent,
  title = {From Intermittent to Continuous Service: {{Costs}}, Benefits, Equity and Sustainability of Water System Reforms in {{Hubli-Dharwad}}, {{India}}},
  shorttitle = {From Intermittent to Continuous Service},
  author = {Burt, Zachary and Erc{\"u}men, Ay{\c s}e and Billava, Narayana and Ray, Isha},
  year = {2018},
  journal = {World Development},
  volume = {109},
  number = {C},
  pages = {121--133},
  publisher = {Elsevier},
  urldate = {2024-03-25},
  abstract = {Urban service provision falls somewhere on the continuum of lower-cost, lower-quality, unreliable and intermittent to higher-cost, higher-quality, reliable and continuous. Piped water services in India are generally in the former category, but efforts are underway in some cities to shift to continuous supply. We use a matched-cohort research design to evaluate one such effort: an upgrade to continuous water service in a pilot zone of Hubli-Dharwad, India, while the rest of the city remained on intermittent services. We conducted a survey of {$\sim$}4000 households with four rounds of data collection over 15 months. We evaluated the household-level net benefits, the equity of their distribution, and the affordability of water access under continuous supply. We also evaluated the project at the system-level (household and utility), estimating the net present value of the upgrade and the feasibility of scale-up to the entire city. We found positive net benefits for households overall, but uneven distribution of these benefits across socio-economic strata. We also found that the costs of supply augmentation, a necessary step for scale-up, significantly reduced the project net present value. The potential for scale-up is thus unclear.},
  langid = {english},
  keywords = {Affordability,Continuous water supply,Cost-benefit analysis,India,Piped water supply},
  file = {files/10139/v109y2018icp121-133.html}
}

@article{klug2018categorization,
  title = {A Categorization of Water System Breakdowns: {{Evidence}} from {{Liberia}}, {{Nigeria}}, {{Tanzania}}, and {{Uganda}}},
  shorttitle = {A Categorization of Water System Breakdowns},
  author = {Klug, Tori and Shields, Katherine and Bartram, Jamie},
  year = {2018},
  month = apr,
  journal = {Science of The Total Environment},
  volume = {619620},
  pages = {1126--1132},
  doi = {10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.11.183},
  abstract = {In rural sub-Saharan Africa, one in three handpumps are non-functional at any time. While there is some evidence describing factors associated with non-functional water systems, there is little evidence describing the categories of water system breakdowns that commonly occur. Insufficient water availability from broken down systems can force people to use unimproved water sources, which undermines the health benefits of an improved water source. We categorized common water system breakdowns using quantitative and qualitative monitoring data from Liberia, Nigeria, Tanzania, and Uganda (each N N 3600 water systems) and examined how breakdown category varies by water system type and management characteristics. Specific broken parts were mentioned more frequently than all other reasons for breakdown; hardware parts frequently found at fault for breakdown were aprons (Liberia), pipes (Tanzania and Uganda), taps/spouts (Tanzania and Uganda), and lift mechanisms (Nigeria). Statistically significant differences in breakdown category were identified based on system type, age, management type, and fee collection type. Categorization can help to identify common reasons for water system breakdown. The analysis of these data can be used to develop improved monitoring instruments to inform actors of different breakdown types and provide reasons for system non-functionality. Improved monitoring instruments would enable actors to target appropriate resources to address specific breakdowns likely to arise based on system type and management characteristics in order to inform improved implementation of and post-construction support for water systems in sub-Saharan Africa.}
}

@article{murray2024rural,
  title = {Rural {{Water Point Functionality Estimates}} and {{Associations}}: {{Evidence From Nine Countries}} in {{Sub-Saharan Africa}} and {{South Asia}}},
  shorttitle = {Rural {{Water Point Functionality Estimates}} and {{Associations}}},
  author = {Murray, Anna L. and Stone, Gabriela and Yang, Audrey R. and Lawrence, Nicholas F. and Matthews, Hannah and Kayser, Georgia L.},
  year = {2024},
  journal = {Water Resources Research},
  volume = {60},
  number = {2},
  pages = {e2023WR034679},
  issn = {1944-7973},
  doi = {10.1029/2023WR034679},
  urldate = {2024-03-25},
  abstract = {Sustained functionality of rural water systems is a global challenge. Research on factors contributing to rural water system functionality is largely restricted to hand pumps from single geographies. We analyzed monitoring data from 10 drinking water supply programs in nine sub-Saharan African and South Asian countries collected between 2017 and 2020. Data included 1,805 randomly selected water points (tap stands, spring protections, rainwater collection, and boreholes and hand-dug wells with hand pumps) from two cross-sectional samples: older construction (1--12 years old) and new construction ({$<$}1 year). Data collection included observations of water point functionality (``water available'') and management committee questionnaires. Overall, 79\% of older construction and 92\% of new construction water points were functional. In a mixed effects logistic regression to identify factors contributing to functionality within the older construction sample, piped water tap stands had lower odds of functioning than boreholes with hand pumps (OR = 0.26, 95\% CI:0.15--0.46). Water points in communities with fewer available water points, those with operational water management committees (which meet often, collect fees, and can name someone for maintenance), and those with financial savings were associated with higher functionality. As piped water system provision increases in line with international development goals, our results suggest that the benefits of providing higher levels of water service should be carefully considered alongside the technological, institutional, and financial investment required to operate and maintain more complex piped water systems in rural settings.},
  copyright = {{\copyright} 2024. The Authors.},
  langid = {english},
  keywords = {drinking water,functionality,low and middle income countries,rural water supply,sustainability,water point},
  note = {e2023WR034679 2023WR034679},
  file = {files/6025/Murray et al. - 2024 - Rural Water Point Functionality Estimates and Asso.pdf;files/6057/2023WR034679.html}
}

@misc{nina2021progressa,
  title = {Progress on Household Drinking Water, Sanitation and Hygiene, 2000-2020: {{Five}} Years into the {{SDGs}}},
  shorttitle = {Progress on Household Drinking Water, Sanitation and Hygiene, 2000-2020},
  author = {},
  year = {2021},
  month = jul,
  journal = {UNICEF DATA},
  urldate = {2024-03-25},
  howpublished = {https://data.unicef.org/resources/progress-on-household-drinking-water-sanitation-and-hygiene-2000-2020/},
  langid = {american},
  file = {files/10135/progress-on-household-drinking-water-sanitation-and-hygiene-2000-2020.html}
}

@misc{safely,
  title = {Safely Managed Drinking-Water},
  year = {2017},
  urldate = {2024-03-25},
  abstract = {Thematic report on drinking-water 2017},
  howpublished = {https://www.who.int/publications-detail-redirect/9789241565424},
  langid = {english},
  file = {files/10133/9789241565424.html}
}

@article{valcourt2020understanding,
  title = {Understanding {{Rural Water Services}} as a {{Complex System}}: {{An Assessment}} of {{Key Factors}} as {{Potential Leverage Points}} for {{Improved Service Sustainability}}},
  shorttitle = {Understanding {{Rural Water Services}} as a {{Complex System}}},
  author = {Valcourt, Nicholas and Walters, Jeffrey and {Javernick-Will}, Amy and Linden, Karl and Hailegiorgis, Betelhem},
  year = {2020},
  month = jan,
  journal = {Sustainability},
  volume = {12},
  number = {3},
  pages = {1243},
  publisher = {Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute},
  issn = {2071-1050},
  doi = {10.3390/su12031243},
  urldate = {2024-03-25},
  abstract = {Rural water supply services worldwide consistently fail to deliver full public health impacts as intended due to a low service sustainability. This failure is increasingly attributed to weak local systems composed of social, financial and environmental factors. Current approaches in the water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) sector for understanding and improving these systems typically focus on the strength and capacity of these factors, but not the interactions between them. We contend that these approaches overlook the inherent complexity and context-specific nature of each local system. To assess this complexity, we conducted four participatory factor mapping workshops with local stakeholders across multiple rural water contexts to identify the factors and interactions that support service sustainability. We then evaluate the potential for factors to act as strategic leverage points based on influence, dependence and feedback metrics that arise from their interactions with other factors. We find that while participants across the contexts tend to identify a common set of factors, the interactions amongst those factors and their individual ability to influence service sustainability varies considerably across contexts. These findings suggest that a more intentional focus on factor interactions in WASH systems could lead to more effective strategies for improving service sustainability.},
  copyright = {http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/},
  langid = {english},
  keywords = {causal loop diagraming,complex systems,Rural water service delivery,systems thinking,WASH},
  file = {files/10143/Valcourt et al. - 2020 - Understanding Rural Water Services as a Complex Sy.pdf}
}